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Aromatherapy is a term used to describe the applied use of pure essential oils, often in combination with a specialised form of massage, for the purpose of improving a specific ailment, restoring energy levels, balancing the body & mind, and promoting general wellbeing.
The term 'Aromatherapy' is derived from two words: 'aroma', meaning smell or odour, and 'therapy', meaning treatment. As such, we can define 'aromatherapy' as 'treatment using aromas/odours'.
This type of definition is easy to come by in most modern texts and websites on the subject of aromatherapy.
The above 'literal' definition is correct and informative; however, it has the potential to lead to confusion. 'Aromas' and 'odours' come in many forms, such as synthetic and fragrance oils, and aromatherapy is about far more than a this. Aromatherapy is about the therapeutic properties of pure essential oils, properties which are present only when an essential oil is in its whole and complete state.
Consider the following. You go into a florist shop to specifically purchase a single rose, but instead of bringing you a rose as you requested, the florist hands you a daffodil, soaked in rose oil. Asking you what it smells of, you answer, quite correctly, "a rose". The flower you are holding, however, remains a daffodil. Would you then purchase this rose-scented daffodil? And if so, would you then expect it to conform to all the characteristics of a rose?
The point is that replicating the odour of the rose, however successfully it is done, will never change the fact that only a rose is a rose, just as only a daffodil is a daffodil! Imitations may smell like the real thing, but they remain imitations. And imitations are of no value, therapeutic or otherwise, in the modern practice of aromatherapy. This is one of the challenges that aromatherapists face in educating the layman, that is conveying the importance of product authenticity, not to mention quality and purity.
It is therefore important to arrive at a definition of aromatherapy which accurately describes the practice, whilst minimising confusion about what constitutes a therapeutic 'smell' or 'aroma'. In brief, a more therapeutically-focussed, aromatherapy-specific definition is needed.
Towards this end, Zamya suggests, as an operational definition of 'aromatherapy'
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"the applied use of pure essential oils in a therapeutic context and by varied methods of application".
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In terms of disciplines which take into account the whole human system, Aromatherapy is truly an 'holistic' therapy. Aromatherapy concerns itself with not only the mind, body and spirit, but also the lifestyle, relationships, social factors and other aspects of the individual. It is a therapy reflecting the philosophy that all individuals are unique, and as such, we should expect the challenges, problems and needs of all people to be different.
Essential oils are pure, concentrated, volatile essences that are naturally present in plants, flowers, herbs, fruits etc. The method by which the oil is obtained from the plant varies according to the particular plant. Some essential oils, such as citrus oils (lemon, orange etc) are easily obtained through relatively simple processes, such as steam distillation or expression. Other essential such as Melissa (True) (Melissa officinalis), and those known as 'Absolutes' (obtained through solvent extraction) such as Rose absolute, yield only a very small amount of oil, and even then through a far more time consuming process. This explains the wide variation in cost of essential oils (see the Pure Essential Oils & Absolutes range for further details).
Pure essential oils are highly concentrated, and are not suitable for direct application to the skin. It is therefore necessary to dilute the essential oil in some other medium before use in massage. Because essential oils are fat-soluble and not water-soluble, aromatherapists blend essential oils into vegetable oils, such as Sunflower or Sweet Almond. These are referred to, in aromatherapy, as 'Carrier' or 'Base' oils. Vegetable oils for use in aromatherapy should be high quality and where possible should be 'cold-pressed' or 'unrefined'. High quality vegetable oils are often packed with vitamins, minerals and other nutrients, and by using a good quality vegetable oil, you can expect to benefit from the therapeutic properties of the vegetable oil itself (see the Pure Carrier range for further details).
Whilst aromatherapy treatment often incorporates specialised massage techniques, there are numerous other ways to enjoy the therapeutic benefits of essential oils (see methods of use section for further details). Burners and vaporisers are popular ways of integrating the oils into our daily routines with the least amount of effort. A few drops of the oils of your choice in one of these easy-to-use devices will not only benefit specific problems, but also fragrance your home environment in a natural, non-synthetic way. Essential oils and blended oils can be used in the bath, and also in inhalations (see methods of use section for further details). In this way, aromatherapy is simple to incorporate into your everyday life.
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The term "Aromatherapy" is derived from two words: "aroma", meaning smell or odour, and "therapy", meaning treatment. As such, we can define "aromatherapy" as "treatment using aromas/odours". The term ‘aromatherapy’ however is relatively modern compared to the actual use of aromatic plants and oils, and as such it is a new term for an ancient practice.
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There are hundreds of texts available today chronicling the history of aromatherapy and the historical use of herbs for their medicinal and therapeutic properties. These historical accounts are also readily available on the internet, although the quality and content of these accounts often amounts to nothing more than a rehash of the other web-based articles. This is not a criticism of all web-based articles on this subject, but it is, unfortunately, a reflection of the vast majority.
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It is considered beyond the scope of this website to give an historical account of aromatherapy which does justice to this antiquated practice, a practice which ancient documentation reveals has certainly existed for as long as early orthodox medical approaches, initially with some amount of overlap, and whose practical and philosophical origins are as globally diverse as the range of essential oils at our disposal today.
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Instead, I have outlined some of the key developments (by popular consensus) of aromatherapy. I would suggest that individuals who are interested in reading fuller accounts of the history of aromatherapy be directed to the recommended books outlined at the end of this section, the most seminal of which by Gattefosse1 , the French chemist who coined the term "aromatherapy" for the therapeutic use of essential oils (translated into English first published in 1993 by Louise Davies and edited by Robert Tisserand) provides a truly fascinating historical account, especially of aromatherapy’s more modern history.
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Other texts have made such a significant and valuable contribution to the practice and theory of aromatherapy, that they themselves become historically symbolic to the subject. These texts, many of which were written in the early to mid 1900’s, have been highly influential in shaping the art and science of aromatherapy.
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French texts such as Gattefosse’s "Aromatherapie: Les Huiles essentielles hormones vegetales"2 , French army surgeon Dr Valnet’s "The Practice of Aromatherapy"3 (also translated into English by Robert Tisserand) and French biochemist M. Maury’s "Guide to Aromatherapy: The Secret of Life and Youth"4 (translated in 1964) are all highly original and indispensable reference material for any serious aromatherapist’s shelf.
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All of these texts provide an important link between the ancient uses of aromatic plants and oils, and the modern practice of aromatherapy as we know it today.
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More modern texts to make important contributions include, in the author’s view, R. Tisserand’s "The Art of Aromatherapy" (1977), S. Price’s "Practical Aromatherapy" (1983), D. Ryman’s "The Aromatherapy Handbook" (1984), P. Davis’s "Aromatherapy: An A – Z" (1988), and "Health and Beauty Care with Massage and Essential Oils" by M. Arcier (1990).
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The abovementioned texts are by no means an exhaustive list of those books to make valuable contributions to aromatherapy, rather that they are important works produced during the two decades following the 1970’s, before the significant upsurge in the popularity of aromatherapy amongst the general public.
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Reputedly, Aromatherapy has been used by most ancient civilizations for around six thousand years. This includes documented uses of plants and herbs for their medicinal properties ancient Egypt, China, and India. It is important to point out here, as highlighted by Gattefosse5 (1937) that "…it is difficult to know whether the authors placed more importance on the volatile content (Essential Oil), than on the whole plant".
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It is widely agreed that Aromatherapy as an identifiable practice began in Egypt.
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The Egyptians
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It is well known that ancient Egyptians were experts at the process of embalming i.e. using aromatics to help preserve flesh. It was also a common practice to be massaged with fragrant oils after bathing. Such practices were reputedly adopted on the recommendation of the Egyptian physician Imhotep (2687-2668 BC), the Egyptian god of medicine and healing, who was venerated for his skills as a physician and a healer. He is said to have extracted medicine from plants and treated diseases such as appendicitis, gout and arthritis. Principles of aromatherapy were also incorporated into cooking for therapeutic purposes, such as the use of specific herbs in order to aid the digestive process, support the immune system and protect against infection. The Egyptians also incorporated the use of Frankincense and Myrrh into their religious sacrificial rituals, such as the burning of Frankincense at sun rise as an offering to the sun god, and burning of Myrrh as an offering to the moon god.
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The Greeks
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The ancient Greeks used aromatic oils both medicinally and cosmetically. During the 1st century, the renowned Greek physician, Dioscorides, wrote the world's first pharmacopeia on the subject of herbal medicine, "De Materia Medica". For at least 1,200 years this text was utilised as the Western world's standard medical reference, although it was not translated into English until the 1650’s (by Goodyer), and subsequently edited and published by Robert Gunther in the 1930’s. Hippocrites, who was commonly known as the "Father of Medicine", and upon whose oath (Hippocratic Oath) doctors still swear today, was the first to study the specific effects of essential oils. Hippocrates (460-370BC) proposed that daily aromatic baths and massage with aromatic oils would promote health and prolong life.
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The Romans
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Much of the medical knowledge amongst the ancient Romans was derived from the Greeks, and subsequently refined. Thus the Romans went on to develop the use of aromatic oils. In Roman bath houses, it was practise to be oiled and massaged after bathing, and Rome became the bathing capital of the world. They then progressed to the importation of new aromatic products from East India and Arabia.
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The Chinese
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It seems more than likely that ancient Chinese civilizations were using some form of aromatics at the same time as the Egyptians. Gattefosse6 (1937) refers to ancient Chinese practices based upon the medicinal use of aromatic herbs, and the wide acceptance of this as an efficacious discipline. Such practices are documented in Shen Nung's herbal pharmacopoeia, "Pen Ts'ao", which was written in the year 2737BC and is the oldest surviving medical book in China, containing information on over 300 plants. The Chinese also incorporated the use of aromatic herbs and burning of aromatic woods and incense into religious rituals.
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Traditional Indian
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Traditional Indian "Ayurvedic" medicine (Ayurveda means literally the "science (Veda) of longevity") has been practiced for more than 3000 years. It was originally a Hindu medical practice/tradition but soon developed outside of the strictly Hindu community and was taken up and adapted by Buddhists and other religious groups. A fundamental aspect of Ayurvedic medicine is the use of aromatic massage.
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The Aztec Indians
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North American Indians are renowned for their wide-ranging uses of plant remedies. Use of aromatics oils and the production of herbal remedies was also common practice. For example, Aztec Indians were very fond of using Passiflora, mainly as a sedative and analgesic. In such South American traditions there is customarily a "curandera"; a therapist who treats the whole person with a combination of massage, counselling, herbalism and ritual. This illustrates the approach which we today refer to as "holism".
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Far East and Arabia
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The use of the distillation process to obtain a plant essence is widely accredited to a Persian Muslim philosopher and physician called Avicenna (c. A.D 980 to A.D. 1037). Avicenna compiled many works, the most famous of which is "The Canon of Medicine", a definitive encyclopaedia of Greek and Roman medical achievement. Avicenna is thought to have first used the process known as distillation to obtain essence or Rose.
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GATTEFOSSE, R.
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(1993)
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"Gattefosse’s Aromatherapy"
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Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd.
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VALNET, J.
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(1982)
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"The Practice of Aromatherapy"
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Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd.
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MAURY, M.
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(1964)
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"The Secret of Life and Youth"
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UK: Macdonald and Co Ltd.
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TISSERAND, R.
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(1977)
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"The Art of Aromatherapy"
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Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd.
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PRICE, S.
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(1983)
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"Practical Aromatherapy"
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Northamptonshire: Thorsons Publishing Group.
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DAVIS, P.
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(1988)
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"Aromatherapy an A – Z"
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Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd.
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1GATTEFOSSE, R-M.
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(1993)
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"Gattefosse’s Aromatherapy"
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Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd.
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2GATTEFOSSE, R-M.
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(1937)
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"Aromatherapie: Les Huiles essentielles hormones vegetales"
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Paris: Girardot & Cie.
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3VALNET, J.
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(1982)
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"The Practice of Aromatherapy"
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Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd.
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4MAURY, M.
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(1964)
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"The Secret of Life and Youth"
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UK: Macdonald and Co Ltd.
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5GATTEFOSSE, R-M.
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(1993)
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"Gattefosse’s Aromatherapy" pp 22
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Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd.
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6GATTEFOSSE, R-M.
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(1993)
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"Gattefosse’s Aromatherapy" pp 29-30
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Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd.
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On this page you will find all the information you need to know in order to safely introduce yourself to practical aromatherapy. Information relating to a variety of methods of use includes massage oils, aromatics baths, vaporisers/oil burners, hip baths, foot baths, compresses, mouthwashes/gargles and inhalations. This is followed by information on the storage of essential oils and storage of carrier oils. A comprehensive guide to the contra-indications to use of certain essential oils is given, and finally, a glossary of terms. Follow these rules for safe use, and let your intuition and imagination be your guide!
Never use essential oils neat/undiluted on the skin unless under the close supervision of a qualified aromatherapist. There may occasionally be exceptions to this rule, for example, the neat application of Lavender essential oil to a spot, or Ti-tree to a wart. Oils suitable for neat application, and the circumstances in which this is recommended, are indicated in the individual profiles for each essential oil.
Recommendations for application of neat oils relate only to ZAMYA© essential oils where the purity of the oil is established.
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 (Can also be used as ready-diluted bath oil)
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- For adult use: Blend essential oils with carrier/vegetable oils at a dilution of around 2.5 % (2-3% is an acceptable range) as indicated below:
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5 drops total essential oil in 10mls carrier/vegetable oil
10 drops total essential oil in 20mls carrier/vegetable oil
25 drops total essential oil in 50mls carrier/vegetable oil
ETC.
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- For children aged 2+: Blend essential oils with carrier/vegetable oils at a dilution of around 1% as indicated below:
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2 drops total essential oil in 10mls carrier/vegetable oil
4 drops total essential oil in 20mls carrier/vegetable oil
10 drops total essential oil in 50mls carrier/vegetable oil
ETC.
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- For babies & infants (6-24 months): Blend essential oils with carrier/vegetable oils at a dilution of around 0.5% as indicated below:
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1 drops total essential oil in 10mls carrier/vegetable oil
2 drops total essential oil in 20mls carrier/vegetable oil
5 drops total essential oil in 50mls carrier/vegetable oil
ETC.
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Caution: The above dilutions indicate the total number of drops of essential oil to be included in the blend. If using several essential oils, remember that the combined total of drops should equal the totals stated above. For example, if blending 3 different essential oils into 25mls of carrier oil then use 4 drops of each i.e. 12 drops in total.
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An aromatic bath is an excellent way of incorporating the use of essential oils into your daily routine, not to mention a pleasurable experience in itself! Prepare the bath as follows:
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- Remember that essential oils are volatile (they evaporate at varying rates), so it is best to run the bath before adding the essential oils. Adding oils to the running water means that much of the aromatic vapour will have evaporated before you even get into the bath. Add between 4 and 10 drops total of essential oil to the water depending on the oils being used (or aprox. 2 teaspoons if using a pre-blended oil). If using several essential oils then note the recommendation is 4 to 10 drops in total. If using oils which are potential skin irritants ie peppermint, then err on the side of caution, using less drops initially, until you are certain of your skin's tolerance to the oil. Agitate the surface of the water to ensure that the oil is evenly distributed.
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- Immerse yourself in the water and relax, inhaling the aromatic vapours, for around 10 to 15 minutes.
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- Do not add any other bath preparations, such as bubble bath etc, to the bath, as these can degrade the essential oils, taking away their therapeutic effects. If you wish to use soap or shampoo etc, you should leave this until you have allowed the essential oils at least 10 minutes to work.
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- Aromatic baths allow the essential oils to take effect through the same two processes as those at work during an aromatherapy massage treatment. These two processes are named 'percutaneous absorption' (absorption of oils into the bloodstream supplying all organs and tissues, via penetration of the skin) and 'olfaction' (inhalation of the vapour allowing absorption of oils via the aqueous lining of the nose, triggering chemical changes in the olfactory bulb in limbic system of the brain).
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Caution: It is important to stir the surface of the bath water in order to ensure that the essential oil is evenly distributed prior to immersing yourself in it. Failure to do this means that complete drops of oil will sit on the surface and could cause severe irritation or even burning to the skin upon contact.
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This is the most popular and effective way of using essential oils to influence your immediate environment. Oils can be burned in order to subtly influence mood, purify the air when infectious illnesses are present, eliminate household odours such as cooking, repel insects, promote a restful sleep, or create the perfect atmosphere for a party!
Usually earthenware, glass or porcelain, oil burners hold a small candle, referred to as a night-light, and have either a built in reservoir or a removable dish on top in which to add water and essential oils. Burning essential oils not only creates a wonderful ambience, but offers a wide range of therapeutic benefits according to the oils chosen. There are, however, certain important points to bear in mind:
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- When using an oil burner, it is important to ensure that there is enough water in the dish. Oils burning in a dish without water quickly turn into a burnt, sticky residue which is difficult to remove.
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- Care must be taken when using night-light candles around children and the elderly.
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- Never leave candles burning unattended in a room.
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This is a simple adaptation of the aromatic bath. Run a bath to hip level with warm water, or alternatively, you can use a large plastic bowl such as a baby bath. Add 2 or 3 drops of essential oil and agitate the surface of the water to ensure the oils are evenly distributed. Sit in the water and soak for 5 to 10 minutes. This process can be repeated as necessary.
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Hip baths are especially suitable for conditions including cystitis, thrush, bursitis, lower back and hip pain, and healing the perineum after childbirth.
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Fill a large bowl with hand-hot water and add between 2 to 5 drops of your chosen essential oils. Agitate the surface of the water to ensure the oils are evenly distributed, then place feet in bowl and soak for around 10 minutes.
After drying the feet, you can complete the treatment by adding a couple of drops of the same essential oils to a little vegetable oil, and massaging into the feet.
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Foot baths are especially suitable for conditions including athlete's foot, fungal nail infections, excessive perspiration and foot odour, rheumatic aches & pains, and oedema of feet/ankles.
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Compresses provide a simple method of applying essential oils locally (to a particular site or injury), and especially where massage is not a suitable option. Compresses can be hot or cold, and understanding when to administer each of these is very important.
A hot compress should be used for old injuries, muscular aches & pains, rheumatic and arthritic pains and painful joints. Other uses include menstrual cramps and cystitis, toothache, and used in skincare for the treatment of abscesses and boils.
A cold compress should be used for recent injuries, including sprains, strains, bruises and inflammation. Other uses include fevers, chicken pox and shingles, headaches and varicose veins.
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To make a compress:
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- Fill a large bowl with aprox. half a litre/500mls of either cold/ice-cold or hot (as hot as is comfortable) water. Add between 4 to 6 drops total of essential oil and agitate the surface of the water to ensure the oils are evenly distributed.
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- Take a piece of cloth such as a small towel, lint or cotton, and place on the surface of the water to absorb the film of oil. Squeeze out excess water and place on the area to be treated (elbow, knee etc). The compress should then be wrapped in cling film in order to secure it firmly in place.
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- The compress should be left on until it cools (in the case of the hot compress) or warms (in the case of the cold compress) to body temperature. This process can be repeated as required.
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Caution: Local massage of certain conditions, such as varicose veins and inflamed arthritic joints, will exacerbate the problem, causing further pain to the individual and damage to the affected site. Always check that massage is not contra-indicated for a specific condition, and if it is, then consider a compress or other alternative.
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Add 1 drop of essential oil to 2 tablespoons of either vodka or cider vinegar. Essential oils dissolve fairly easily in alcohol, and vodka is suitable because of its relative lack of odour. Essential oils dissolve more easily in cider vinegar than water, and it is a good choice in itself for sore & infected throats. Stir the mixture thoroughly to disperse the oil.
Stir this essential oil mixture into a glass/tumbler of warm water, and use to gargle or wash mouth. This can be repeated several times daily or as required. Mouthwashes and gargles are particularly beneficial for gum infections & gingivitis, halitosis (bad breath), mouth ulcers, sore & infected throats, laryngitis.
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Caution: Remember that less is more. Never be tempted to use a higher dose than that recommended by ZAMYA. The lining of the mouth and throat is extremely sensitive to essential oils and only minimal amounts of oils are necessary in order to be effective. Using a higher concentration than that recommended could result in serious irritation and burning of the mouth and throat lining.
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This is a simple yet effective way to administer essential oils, and has a range of therapeutic uses.
For respiratory problems, such as colds, sinusitis and nasal congestion etc, sprinkle between 2 and 5 drops of essential oil onto a handkerchief and inhale. Alternatively, sprinkle the oil onto your pillow. These steps will ease nasal congestion, preventing the "stuffy headed" feeling which often accompanies a cold, and aid a restful night's sleep.
On an emotional level, oil placed on a handkerchief (as described above), or even a single drop rubbed directly into the palm of your hands can provide relief in times of shock, acute distress, nervousness (before exams etc), anxiety and panic attacks.
The oil should be inhaled as the person breathes, slowly and deeply. This should be repeated at least half a dozen times, and can be repeated as necessary, unless the information in the oil's profile indicates otherwise. For mental exhaustion, poor concentration and poor memory (short-term), cephalic oils such as rosemary, peppermint and basil offer improved mental alertness and concentration and are perfectly suited to times of study, exams etc.
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Based purely upon my own intuition and knowledge of the oils, I would recommend the inhalation method as one of the most important uses of essential oils for the treatment of anxiety related symptoms. This includes tachycardia (over-rapid heartbeat), hypernoea (over-rapid breathing) and nervousness†.
Similarly, inhalations will benefit the symptoms of a variety of psychological difficulties, when used alongside appropriate professional psychological interventions. These include panic disorders/attacks, social phobias, and Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD).
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- Essential oils are sensitive to light and should always be stored in a dark glass bottle, (never purchase essential oil unless it is in dark glass) and out of direct sunlight.
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- Essential oils are sensitive to oxygen in the air and must always be stored with a suitable cap/lid securely in place.
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- Essential oils are sensitive to heat and must always be stored in a cool place.
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- Essential oils can corrode plastic and should absolutely never be stored in a plastic/rubber container. Glass is the only suitable material for storage.
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- Essential oils are concentrated plant essences, and whilst they are completely safe when used correctly, misuse can be extremely dangerous. Always store essential oils out of the reach of children.
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- Labels should not be removed from bottles as they are there for a reason, to identify the particular oil which in turn facilitates its safe use. Removal of labels can result in the use of out of date oils, or worse, oils which are completely contra-indicated for a condition you are trying to treat.
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- Plastic bottles are suitable for the storage of plain carrier oils ie before any essential oils have been added.
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- Carrier oils, vary in viscosity, and whilst most are transparent, some, such as Avocado (unrefined), can have a thick/sludgy appearance, which is characteristic of the oil, and nothing to be concerned about. Oils which are usually transparent, such as Grapeseed, Apricot Kernel etc., should remain this way. If such oils start to appear cloudy and smell acrid then they are probably best discarded. If this occurs well within the shelf life of the oil, then you should consider the conditions in which the oils are being stored.
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- Carrier oils may last longer if stored in the fridge, but be sure to remove the bottle a good while before using in a massage blend. Cold massage oils are hardly conducive to relaxation!
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Hazardous Essential Oils:
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There are many essential oils which should not be used at all in aromatherapy since they are not safe for therapeutic use. Table 1 (below) lists essential oils that present a range of potential hazards, including toxicity, serious skin damage, miscarriage, and triggering epileptic attacks, and they should be considered absolutely unsuitable for any type of use in aromatherapy.
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Common name
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Latin name
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Almond (bitter)
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Prunus amygdalis var. amara
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Aniseed
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Pimpinella anisum
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Arnica
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Arnica Montana
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Boldo leaf
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Peumus boldus
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Calamus
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Acorus calamus
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Camphor
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Cinnamonum camphora
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Cassia
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Cinnamonum cassia
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Cinnamon bark
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Cinnamonum zeylanicum
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Costus
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Saussurea lappa
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Elecampane
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Inula helenium
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Fennel (bitter)
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Foenulum vulgare
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Horseradish
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Cochlearia armorica
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Jaborandi leaf
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Pilocarpus jaborandi
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Mugwort
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Artemisia vulgaris
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Mustard
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Brassica nigra
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Origanum
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Origanum vulgare
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Origanum (Spanish)
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Thymus capitatus
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Pennyroyal (European)
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Mentha pulegium
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Pennyroyal (North American)
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Hedoema pulegioides
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Pine
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Pinus pumilio
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Rue
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Ruta graveolens
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Pine
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Pinus pumilio
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Sage
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Salvia officinalis
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Sassafras
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Sassafras albidum
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Sassafras (Brazilian)
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Ocotea cymbarum
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Savin
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Juniperus Sabina
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Savory (summer)
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Satureia hortensis
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Savory (winter)
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Satureia Montana
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Southerwood
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Artemisia abrotanum
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Tansy
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Tanacetum vulgare
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Thuja (cedarleaf)
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Thuja occidentalis
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Thuja plicata
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Thuja plicata
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Wintergreen
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Gaultheria procumbens
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Wormseed
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Chenopodium anthelmintium
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Wormwood
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Artemisia absinthium
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Oils to be used with caution in Aromatherapy:
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Some essential oils, whilst being therapeutically valuable, carry the possibility of undesirable side-effects. Similarly, there are oils which are best avoided in certain conditions. It is therefore necessary to use these oils cautiously. If inexperienced or in doubt it is best to consult a trained aromatherapist for advice.
The tables below list oils to be avoided in specific circumstances, such as in early pregnancy (table 2), throughout pregnancy (table 3), and if epileptic (table 4). Oils presenting a risk of toxicity if used for prolonged periods (around four days or more) are listed in Table 5. Skin irritants and skin sensitisers are listed in Table 6. Finally, Table 7 lists photosensitising or phototoxic oils, which should be avoided before exposure to sunlight (natural or simulated).
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Common name
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Latin name
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Chamomile (German & Roman)
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Matricaria chamomilla & Anthemis nobilis
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Geranium
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Pelargonium graveolens
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Lavender
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Lavendula angustifolia or lavendula officinalis
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Rose
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Rosa centifoila & rosa damascena
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Common name
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Latin name
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Basil
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Ocimum basilicum
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Birch
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Betula alba
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Cedarwood
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Cedrus atlantica
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Clary sage
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Salvia sclarea
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Cypress
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Cupressus sempervirens
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Geranium
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Pelargonium graveolens
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Hyssop
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Hyssopus officinalis
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Jasmine
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Jasminum officinale
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Juniper
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Juniperus communis
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Marjoram
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Origanum marjoraria
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Myrrh
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Commiphora myrrha
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Nutmeg
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Myristica fragrans
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Peppermint
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Mentha piperita
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Rosemary
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Rosemarinus officinalis
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Tarragon
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Artemisia dranunculus
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Thyme
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Thymus vulgaris
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Common name
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Latin name
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Fennel (sweet)
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Foenuculum vulgare
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Hyssop
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Hyssopus officinalis
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Rosemary
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Rosemarinus officinalis
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Common name
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Latin name
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Basil
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Ocimum basilicum
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Cedarwood
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Cedrus atlantica
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Cinnamon leaf
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Cinnamomum zeylanicum
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Eucalyptus
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Eucalyptus globulus and Eucalyptus radiata
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Fennel (sweet)
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Foenuculum vulgare
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Hyssop
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Hyssopus officinalis
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Lemon
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Citrus limon
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Orange
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Citrus sinensis
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Nutmeg
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Myristica fragrans
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Thyme
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Thymus vulgaris
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Common name
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Latin name
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Angelica
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Angelica archangelica or A. officinalis
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Black pepper
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Piper igrum
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Cinnamon leaf
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Cinnamomum zeylanicum
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Citronella
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Cymbopogon nardua
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Clove
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Eugenia caryophyllus
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Ginger
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Zingiber officinalis
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Lemon
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Citrus limon
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Lemongrass
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Cymbopogon citrates
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Lemon verbena
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Lippia citriodora
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Orange
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Citrus sinensis or cirus aurantium
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Nutmeg
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Myristica fragrans
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Peppermint
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Mentha piperita
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Common name
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Latin name
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Angelica
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Angelica archangelica or A. officinalis
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Bergamot
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Citrus bergamia
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Lemon
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Citrus limon
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Lime
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Citrus aurantifolia
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Orange
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Citrus sinensis or cirus aurantium
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† To my knowledge, there have as yet been no reported clinical trials focussing upon the therapeutic benefits of essential oils on these conditions/problems/disorders. Consequently, there is no data available, scientifically validated or otherwise, to substantiate the reported benefits offered by ZAMYA.
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